Opponents to ratification of the U.S. Constitution who believed that it gave excessive power to the federal government and failed to protect the rights and liberties of the people.

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The Bill of Rights lists many basic rights the federal government may not interfere with and must protect. Nearly all these rights are now also protected from violation by state governments.

(1) Formal approval of some formal legal instrument such as a constitution or treaty. (2) In U.S. constitutional history, the approval of the U.S. Constitution in 1788 by the ratifying conventions held in each state, except for Rhode Island, which initially voted the Constitution down by popular referendum.

Gerry was born to a wealthy merchant family in Massachusetts. He graduated from Harvard and was a staunch supporter of Samuel Adams. Gerry was active in protests against British policies and was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He often changed his mind about political issues. For example, after Shays' Rebellion, he spoke against giving the common people too much power, but he still argued for yearly elections and against giving the Senate, which was not accountable to the people, too much power. Gerry refused to sign the Constitution and worked against ratification. Throughout his life, he served in a variety of offices including that of vice president.

John Locke, a physician and philosopher, worked with famous scientists, including Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. In contrast to Hobbes, Locke used state of nature and social contract theory to justify limited government and the preservation of individual rights, particularly life, liberty, and property. Locke is sometimes called "America's philosopher" because his Second Treatise of Government (1690) was widely read by the colonists and important ideas found in it (as well as in works of English republican writers) are found in the Declaration of Independence, especially his theories of natural rights and his defense of violent revolution after "a long train of abuses" of power by rulers. Two verbatim phrases of Locke's are found in the Declaration.

The "Father of the Constitution" was born to a wealthy Virginia family. He was taught at home and in private schools, then graduated from the College of New Jersey. While deciding whether to become a lawyer or minister, Madison became involved in the revolutionary cause, thereby entering state and local politics. His poor health kept him from serving in the military. In 1780, Madison was chosen to serve in the Continental Congress, where he played a major role. He was one of the most influential voices calling for a constitutional convention. He came to the Philadelphia Convention with a plan for the new government, took extensive notes on the proceedings, spoke more than 150 times, and worked tirelessly on various committees. As one of the authors of The Federalist, Madison was also a key figure in the battle for ratification. Following the convention, Madison served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, helping to frame the Bill of Rights and organize the executive department. Under Jefferson, Madison served as secretary of state. He then succeeded Jefferson as president. In retirement, Madison continued to speak out on public issues.

Luther Martin was born in New Jersey around 1748. After graduating from the College of New Jersey, he moved to Maryland where he began practicing law. He served as state attorney general and in the Continental Congress. At the Philadelphia Convention, he opposed increasing the power of the federal government. Martin believed in the rights of the states and of the people and wanted each state to have an equal vote in Congress. He also wanted a bill of rights. Although he owned six slaves, Martin opposed slavery, speaking out against it. Because he lost the battles on the issues he thought were important, Martin left the convention and did not sign the Constitution. He fought against ratification in Maryland. After 27 years in office, Martin resigned as Maryland attorney general in 1805. He served in several other positions, but returned as attorney general in 1818.

An author and Anti-Federalist, she knew most of the Revolutionary leaders personally and spent much of her life at the center of events. Her vantage point, combined with her literary talents, made her a well-known historian and poet. She wrote several plays and a three-volume history of the Revolution.

Yates was born and educated in New York. He became a lawyer and set up practice in Albany. He spent the greatest amount of time as a justice of the New York Supreme Court, serving eight years as chief justice. Yates left the Philadelphia Convention because he believed it had exceeded its authority. A strong Anti-Federalist, he worked against ratification, writing several essays attacking the document. Yates kept notes of the convention which have been useful to historians.

Anti-Federalist argument for a federal republic with authority resting in the state governments. Brutus argues that the provisions in the proposed constitution are general and comprehensive enough to endanger states with irrelevancy, with specific regard to the necessary and proper clause and the difficulty of a republic governing over diverse interests.

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An Anti-Federalist paper arguing that a bill of rights should be necessary to guarantee rights if a federal government and constitution were enacted.

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An argument against a strong national government in favor of more power resting in the states. Brutus speaks specifically to the idea of taxation and government debt to fund protection and defense, fearful that the states would lack the authority to collect import tariffs, which he sees as the tax best equipped to support protection and defense.

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Anti-Federalist paper questioning the power that the necessary and proper clause gives to the federal government under the proposed constitution. Centinel argued that simply adding words claiming that a law was sanctioned by the proposed constitution would enable the abuse of power.

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A discussion on a consolidated republic in which the Farmer differentiates it from his definition of a federation, but remains fearful of the lack of state militias and of congressional power to levy taxes. He likens these powers to civil and military tyranny no better than monarchies or despotic governments. The Farmer also wonders whether surrendering these powers are worth the benefits of consolidating government while not explicitly declaring his argument Anti-Federalist.

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Anti-Federalist paper questioning the proposed constitution in the areas of the necessary and proper clause, taxation, the office of the vice president, popular sovereignty and the need for a bill of rights.

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An Anti-Federalist essay, criticizing the proposed constitution and outlining the Federal Farmer's goals for future letters. He proposed increased representation, inclusion of state governments in the national government, and ensuring the representation of diverse interests.

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Anti-Federalist argument for a federal republic with authority resting in the state governments. The Federal Farmer praises the historical events of England that resulted in a small number of people over a small geographic area represented by a relatively large number of officials and warns that the proposed constitution would result in an elite failing to represent the common man, as in Rome.

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Anti-Federalist paper suggesting improvements to the proposed organization of the legislative branch to increase representation and representativeness. The Federal Farmer feared that a house of representatives could overpower the senate and proposed changes to better balance the power between branches.

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Anti-Federalist paper suggesting improvements to the proposed organization of the judicial branch. The Federal Farmer argued that the judiciary was the most important and most difficult branch of government to properly organize.

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An argument for a federal republic over what the author calls "consolidated government." The Federal Farmer claims that the proposed constitution would make all citizens subjects of the legislature and its power to tax, which would make state and local governments useless and powerless.

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An Anti-Federalist paper addressing the powers of state militias and federal armed forces, the relationship between bankruptcy and government seizures of property, and of a town that houses the government but is not part of any of the 13 states.

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Part of an address Martin gave to the lower legislature in Maryland on November 29, 1789 after leaving the Constitutional Convention early. The address broke the secrecy agreement under which the convention met. This part of the speech argued that the activities at the Constitutional Convention violated the Articles of Confederation in creating a new government rather than merely amending the present one.

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Anti-Federalist paper questioning the power that the necessary and proper clause gives to the federal government under the proposed constitution. An Old Whig specifically cited the removal of the clause reserving rights to the states, though it would later be included as the Tenth Amendment.

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Patrick Henry's warning to the Virginia ratifying committee against voting in favor of the proposed constitution. Henry argued that there was no emergency making a new system of government necessary, that the Federal Convention was charged with amending the confederate system and nothing else.

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The North Carolina Convention met from July 21 through August 4, 1788, but after debate agreed only to neither ratify or reject the Constitution, but did adopt a resolution containing a Declaration of Rights and a list of proposed Amendments to the Constitution on August 2, 1788. After the Constitution had been ratified by a sufficient number of states, the members of the convention reconvened and, apparently without further debate, ratified the Constitution November 21, 1789, and announced the Declaration below, which includes the resolution of August 2, 1788.

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The Bill of Rights is first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The Bill of Rights lists many basic rights that the federal government may not interfere with and must protect. Nearly all these rights are now also protected from violation by state governments. The link below contains the full text of the Bill of Rights as well as all amendments to the Constitution.

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The supreme law of the United States that provides the framework for the government. The Constitution outlines the nation's institutions of government and the most important rights of the people. The document was created in 1787 during the Philadelphia Convention. The government created by the Constitution took effect on March 4, 1789.

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